In Focus: A Brief Overview of Anti-Racism Among Youth

In Focus: A Brief Overview of Anti-Racism Among Youth

By Fatima Varner, PhD; Lorraine Scott, MA; Gloria Stout, BA; & Sophia J. Lamb, BS
The University of Texas at Austin

Anti-racism includes attitudes and actions that “seek to confront, eradicate, and/or ameliorate racism” (Bonnett, 2005, p. 3) and requires awareness of systems of racism, oppression, and privilege (Cooper et al., 2022; Roberts and Rizzo, 2021). Anti-racist actions can be interpersonal in one’s immediate environments, communal in working with others in communities and schools, and through political processes such as protesting (Aldana et al., 2019; Bañales et al., 2021a; O’Brien, 2018). The psychological literature on anti-racism is scant relative to the body of research focused on prejudice reduction and the negative influences of racism on psychological well-being and mental health (Benner et al., 2018; Paradies et al., 2015; Roberts & Rizzo, 2021). In this brief introduction we will cover antiracism research a) among racially and ethnically minoritized youth, b) among White youth, and c) in interventions.

Anti-racism among racially and ethnically minoritized youth

Anti-racism research involving racially and ethnically minoritized populations often focuses on their critical consciousness, or their awareness, motivational responses, and resistance to forms of oppression (Watts et al., 2011). Ethnic-racial socialization (i.e., messages about race and ethnicity) that confronts the roles of racism and other forms of oppression is one process which can contribute to critical consciousness (Bañales & Rivas-Drake, 2022; Bañales et al., 2021b). This ethnic-racial socialization can come from many different sources including from family, peers, and media. For example, in a national sample of Black youth, youth who experienced anti-racist socialization through hip-hop media also reported higher rates of racial resistance, including Anti-Racist Activism, higher awareness of racial inequity, and a greater sense of agency in the ability to address racism (Anyiwo et al., 2022). In addition, ethnic-racial identity development is related to the development of anti-racist ideology and behaviors. Among Latinx youth, holding a Latinx anti-racist identity often involves having a politicized understanding of one’s ethnic-racial identity and stems from youth actively confronting the roles that White Supremacy, Anti-Blackness, and Anti-Indigeneity play in their lives (Bañales & Rivas-Drake, 2022). Critical reflection about how racism is differentially experienced by people of different ethnicities, genders, sexualities, skin tone, etc. is also crucial to youths’ understanding and participation in anti-racist action (Bañales & Rivas-Drake, 2022; Mora & Figueroa, 2021; Velez & Spencer, 2018).

Youths’ engagement in anti-racist activism also appears to be tied to their experiences of race-related stressors.  Hope and colleagues (2022) found that racism-related stress was related to higher anti-racism activism for Black adolescents and emerging adults. Critical action has been theorized as an adaptive response to oppression through which youth can experience hope and increased political efficacy (Hope & Spencer, 2017). At the same time, youth may feel negative emotions such as anger and frustration because of their increased awareness of injustice and barriers to changing the status quo (see Anyiwo et al., 2020 for review). More research on the consequences of and supports for youth engaged in anti-racist action is needed as other research suggests that antiracism actions can contribute to more depressive symptoms and reduced psychological well-being among youth, but these links can be mitigated by their perceptions of parental critical motivation and community action (Heberle et al., 2022).

Anti-racism among White youth

Anti-racism research in White populations is shaped by the idea that White individuals are less likely than racially and ethnically minoritized youth to develop an anti-racist identity because it requires them to work against a racial hierarchy that often benefits them (O’Brien, 2018). Therefore, much of the anti-racism research with White populations focuses on how anti-racism develops. Hazelbaker and colleagues (2022) have developed a model of development of anti-racism among White children and youth which emphasizes the development of socioemotional and cognitive skills and moral development in childhood and early adolescence. The development of perspective taking, empathy, and moral reasoning contribute to early adolescents’ ability to recognize and understand racism and privilege during adolescence, and ultimately engage in both interpersonal and collective action. Racial socialization messages from parents, intergroup contact and anti-bias curricula at school, and peer norms were proposed as contextual factors that promote White youths’ awareness of racism and privilege. 

In regard to racial socialization messages in White families, the literature has focused on color-evasive (or colorblind) versus color conscious messages. Many White parents are silent about race or promote messages that deemphasize the significance of race (Abaied & Perry, 2021; Hagerman, 2014; Loyd & Gaither, 2018). These types of color-evasive messages have been found to reinforce preexisting racial hierarchies and are often identified as a barrier to anti-racism (Bartoli et al., 2016). Color-conscious messages that directly discuss race and the existence of racism and privilege are much less common in White families but have been linked to more positive racial outgroup attitudes (Loyd & Gaither, 2018; Perry et al., 2019; Vittrup & Holden, 2011). In one study examining anti-racist White fathers, explicit messages about race and confronting racism are one strategy that fathers reported using to develop anti-racist children (Hagerman, 2017). Yet, more research is needed to determine links between color-conscious racial socialization and White youths’ development of an anti-racist identity.

Other anti-racism research has explored the influence of peers, particularly intergroup contact for White youth to develop awareness of racism and anti-racist attitudes and actions. Cross-racial friendships on their own may not be sufficient for White youth to develop anti-racist ideologies, as most White youth indicate that they do not discuss race with friends of a different race (O’Brien & Korgen, 2007). A recent study by Smalls Glover et al. (2022) examined both parent and peer influences in adolescence on White youths’ later anti-racist ideology (measured by acknowledgment of anti-Black racism and endorsement of affirmative action to redress racism). Parents’ reports of favorable racial out-group attitudes were positively related to acknowledgment of anti-Black discrimination among White youth who had more close Black friendships but was not related among White youth with few close Black friends. These results suggest that being embedded in multiple reinforcing contexts is important for awareness of racism. Together these findings also align with other research that suggests that many White anti-racist individuals often undergo a “process of sensitization” rather than identifying one factor or event that led to anti-racism (O’Brien & Korgen, 2007).

Anti-Racist Interventions

There is a dearth of research on specific interventions that facilitate development of anti-racism (Cooper et al., 2022). However, there are a few school and community-based interventions that have led to anti-racist outcomes among the participants (Cooper et al., 2022; Killen et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2022; Curenton et al., 2022). For instance, Killen & Colleagues (2022), recently implemented the Developing Inclusive Youth (DIY) program, a multisite randomized controlled trial, with elementary school children which attempted to directly address children’s social and racial biases. DIY was found to be effective in changing attitudes among the children as they were found to be more likely to engage in actions that promoted social and racial inclusion (e.g., play with diverse groups of peers) compared to children in the control group (Killen et al., 2022). Furthermore, Sun et al. (2022) were able to successfully implement an anti-racism and anti-colonialism intervention among Indigenous children, which aimed to challenge and resist institutional racism while also supporting their overall well-being. Nevertheless, in the current sociopolitical climate, many of these groundbreaking anti-racism interventions are difficult to implement because of increasing legislation and policies that limit the discussion of racism and by default anti-racism in public schools (Ray & Gibbons, 2021)

Conclusion

More anti-racism research is needed that directly examines correlates and consequences of anti-racism action. In addition, links between color-conscious White racial socialization and anti-racism attitudes and actions should be explored. The current research primarily focuses on critical action among racially and ethnically minoritized youth, relative to White youth, which appears to place the burden of challenging racism onto minoritized youth of color. Much of the research cited above focuses on individual development of anti-racist identities and behaviors. However, to fight multisystemic racism, collective actions in institutions that have historically engaged in racist and marginalizing practices are also important, including in academia.

To better serve racially minoritized communities through anti-racist research, researchers should consider the roles of racism, oppression, and power during each step of the research process. This consideration begins with the conceptualization of research questions, selection of theoretical frameworks, design of data collection methods, and data interpretation (Doucet, 2021; Kirkland, 2019). In addition, increasing inclusion of underrepresented scholars in citations, research projects, and grant opportunities, and underrepresented students in our research labs can increase inclusion and equity in our field (Chaudhaury & Berhe, 2020; Zurn et al., 2020). It is only with collective actions and confrontation with oppressive systems that we may truly begin producing anti-racist work that might best serve future generations.

References

Abaied, J. L., & Perry, S. P. (2021). Socialization of racial ideology by White parents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(3), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000454

Aldana, A., Bañales, J., & Richards-Schuster, K. (2019). Youth anti-racist engagement: Conceptualization, development, and validation of an anti-racism action scale. Adolescent Research Review, 4(4), 369-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00113-1

Anyiwo, N., Palmer, G. J., Garrett, J. M., Starck, J. G., & Hope, E. C. (2020). Racial and political resistance: An examination of the sociopolitical action of racially marginalized youth. Current opinion in psychology, 35, 86-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.005

Anyiwo, N., Watkins, D. C., & Rowley, S. J. (2022). “They can’t take away the light”: Hip-Hop culture and black youth’s racial resistance. Youth & Society, 54(4), 611-634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X211001096

Bañales, J., Aldana, A., Richards‐Schuster, K., Flanagan, C. A., Diemer, M. A., & Rowley, S. J. (2021). Youth anti‐racism action: Contributions of youth perceptions of school racial messages and critical consciousness. Journal of Community Psychology, 49(8), 3079-3100. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22266

Bañales, J., Hope, E. C., Rowley, S. J., & Cryer‐Coupet, Q. R. (2021). Raising justice‐minded youth: Parental ethnic‐racial and political socialization and Black youth’s critical consciousness. Journal of Social Issues, 77(4), 964-986. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12486

Bañales, J., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2022). Showing Up: A Theoretical Model of Anti‐Racist Identity and Action for Latinx Youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(3), 999-1019. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12747

Bartoli, E., Michael, A., Bentley-Edwards, K. L., Stevenson, H. C., Shor, R. E., & McClain, S. E. (2016). Training for colour-blindness: White racial socialisation. Whiteness and Education, 1(2), 125-136.

Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y.-P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204

Bonnett, A. (2005). Anti-racism. Routledge.

Chaudhaury, V. B., & Berhe, A. A. (2020). Ten simple rules for building an antiracist lab. PLOS Computational Biology, 16(10), e1008210. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008210

Cooper, S. M., Hurd, N. M., & Loyd, A. B. (2022). Advancing scholarship on anti-racism within developmental science: Reflections on the special section and recommendations for future research. Child Development, 93(3), 619-632. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13783

Curenton, S. M., Rochester, S. E., Sims, J., Ibekwe-Okafor, N., Iruka, I. U., García-Miranda, A. G., & Whittaker, J. (2022). Antiracism defined as equitable sociocultural interactions in prekindergarten: Classroom racial composition makes a difference. Child Development, 93(3), 681–698.

Doucet, F. (2021). Identifying and testing strategies to improve the use of antiracist research evidence through critical race lenses. WT Grant Foundation, Digest, (6).

Hagerman, M. A. (2014). White families and race: Colour-blind and colour-conscious approaches to white racial socialization. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 37(14), 2598-2614. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.848289

Hagerman, M. A. (2017). White racial socialization: Progressive fathers on raising “antiracist” children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 79(1), 60-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12325

Hazelbaker, T., Brown, C. S., Nenadal, L., & Mistry, R. S. (2022). Fostering anti-racism in white children and youth: Development within contexts. American Psychologist, 77(4), 497-509. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000948

Heberle, A. E., Wagner, A. C., & Hoch, N. (2022). Adolescent mental health in relation to anti-racism critical action. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(5), 832-847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01589-2

Hope, E. C., & Spencer, M. B. (2017). Civic engagement as an adaptive coping response to conditions of inequality: An application of phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST). In N.J. Cabrera, B. Leyendecker (Eds.), Handbook on Positive Development of Minority Children and Youth, pp. 421-435, . Springer International Publishing.

Hope, E. C., Volpe, V. V., Briggs, A. S., & Benson, G. P. (2022). Anti‐racism activism among Black adolescents and emerging adults: Understanding the roles of racism and anticipatory racism‐related stress. Child Development, 93(3), 717-731.

Killen, M., Burkholder, A. R., D’Esterre, A. P., Sims, R. N., Glidden, J., Yee, K. M., Luken Raz, K. V., Elenbaas, L., Rizzo, M. T., Woodward, B., Samuelson, A., Sweet, T. M., & Stapleton, L. M. (2022). Testing the effectiveness of developing inclusive youth: A multisite randomized control trial. Child Development, 93(3), 732–750. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13785

Kirkland, D.E. (2019). No small matters: Reimagining the use of research evidence from a racial justice perspective. William T. Grant Foundation. http://wtgrantfoundation.org/library/uploads/2019/12/ David-E.-Kirkland-2019-WTG-Digest. pdf

Loyd, A. B., & Gaither, S. E. (2018). Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 59(1), 54-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004

Mora, M., & Figueroa, M. M. (2021). Horizons of Anti-Racist Organizing in Mexico: Despite historical barriers, the grounds for joint Indigenous and Black organizing are fertile. How can anti-racist and anti-colonial collective action take root?. NACLA Report on the Americas, 53(3), 239-247.

O’Brien, E. (2018). Anti-racism. In P. Batur and J. R. Feagin (eds.), Handbook of the Sociology of Racial and Ethnic Relations, Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, pp. 413 – 425. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76757-4_23

O’Brien, E., & Korgen, K. O. (2007). It’s the message, not the messenger: the declining significance of Black–White contact in a “colorblind” society. Sociological Inquiry, 77(3), 356-382. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2007.00197.x

Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., … & Gee, G. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS one, 10(9), e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511

Perry, S. P., Skinner, A. L., & Abaied, J. L. (2019). Bias awareness predicts color conscious racial socialization methods among White parents. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1035-1056. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12348

Ray, R., & Gibbons, A. (2021). Why are states banning critical race theory? Brookings Institute. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2021/07/02/why-are-states-banning-critical-race-theory/

Roberts, S. O., & Rizzo, M. T. (2021). The psychology of American racism. American Psychologist, 76(3), 475. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000642

Smalls Glover, C., Varner, F., & Holloway, K. (2022). Parent socialization and anti‐racist ideology development in White youth: Do peer and parenting contexts matter?. Child Development, 93(3), 653-667. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13788

Sun, J., Goforth, A. N., Nichols, L. M., Violante, A. E., Christopher, K., Howlett, R., Hogenson, D., & Graham, N. (2022). Building a space to dream: Supporting indigenous children’s survivance through community-engaged social and emotional learning. Child Development, 93(3),  699–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13786

Sykes, E., & Hinger, S. (2021, September 29). State Lawmakers Are Trying to Ban Talk About Race in Schools | News & Commentary. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved September 27, 2022, from https://www.aclu.org/news/free-speech/state-lawmakers-are-trying-to-ban-talk-about-race-in-schools

Velez, G., & Spencer, M. B. (2018). Phenomenology and intersectionality: Using PVEST as a frame for adolescent identity formation amid intersecting ecological systems of inequality. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2018(161), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20247

Vittrup, B., & Holden, G. W. (2011). Exploring the impact of educational television and parent–child discussions on children’s racial attitudes. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 11(1), 82-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2010.01223.x

Watts, R. J., Diemer, M. A., & Voight, A. M. (2011). Critical consciousness: Current status and future directions. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2011(134), 43-57. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.310

Zurn, P., Bassett, D. S., & Rust, N. C. (2020). The citation diversity statement: a practice of transparency, a way of life. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(9), 669-672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2020.06.009